CHAPTER THREE

THE INCEPTION OF IMAMATE THOUGHT

After the Kissanite development that took place in the Shiite ranks at the end of the first century of Hijra, revolving around the idea of the will from the Noble Prophet in favor of Imam Ali, which he in turn, transferred to Hassan and Hussain at the time of his death; then it went to Muhammad bin Hanafiyyah, which he later bestowed unto his son Abu Hashim Abdullah, that development that led to the fact ionization of the Shiite movement into several sects at the end of the first century, when the various factions claim (possessing) a will from Abu Hashim. This eventually led to a big internal strife, in the ranks of the household of the Prophet, being divided into Abbasids Alawites Talibites, Fatimides, Hassanites, Hussainites, Zaydites and Ja’farites. After that development, and what became of the Shiites, in terms of small groups, another development took place in their midst in the beginning of the second century of Hijra, with the confinement of the Imamate to the household of Hussain, and appointing, from among them, the eldest son of the past immediate Imam, and the claim of infallibility and divine appointment for the Imam.

UMAYYAD POLITICAL THEORY

It may be that the claim of infallibility of the Imam from the household of the Prophet was a reaction from some Shiites, on the appointment of the Umayyad rulers of their sons to succeed them, after them on the pretext of general good (Maslahah) of the Ummah, as Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan has said when he appointed his son Yazid, as the Caliph after him. They also claimed infallibility for themselves, so also absolute powers, including their demand from the Muslims absolute and unconditional obedience, even if that constitutes an act of disobedience to Allah, the Exalted.

It is well-known that the Umayyads who transformed the Islamic Shura system into a political hereditary system, based their political theory on the doctrine of ‘Jabr’ (Compulsion) and the divine will, saying that; Allah has chosen them for the Khilafah, and has given them power, and that they are ruling with the power (Qudrah) of Allah, and they are acting in line with His will. They consolidated their rule with a kind of holiness. They exalted the affair of the Caliphate and the Caliph, and prohibited him from the fire of hell… describing him in lofty religious attributes and titles… because to them they (the Caliphs) represent the will of Allah. (2)

This doctrine became clear in the statement of Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan when he entered Kufah, after his agreement with Imam Hassan: “Surely I fought you, so that I will be a ruler over you, and Allah has bestowed that to me, though you detest it. (3) And his statement to an Iraqi delegation which came to him in Syria: “The Earth belongs to Allah, I am the Khalifah, (Vicegerent) of Allah, whatever I took is for me, and whatever I left for the people, is a favor from me… it is a rule given to us by Allah. (4)

Ziyad bin Abih, Mu'awiyah’s governor in Iraq, said in his famous sermon (Al-Batra) to the people of Basrah “ O people we have become your leaders who repel harm from you. We rule you with the power of Allah given to us, and we protect you from harm by means of Allah’s bounty given to us. We have on you (the duty of) absolute obedience in what we love, and you have on us (as a right), justice and fair play, in what we have been given charge. Make our justice and bounty as your right by advising us rightly. (5)

Dahhak bin Qays al-Fihri said, when the people of Iraq opposed Mu’awiyah’s call to give a covenant on appointing his son Yazid as Khalifah (after him) in the year 46 A.H:

“What has Hussain or his children to do with the rule of Allah, wherein He has made Mu’awiyah, His vicegerent on His earth? (6)

Yazid bin Mu’awiyah said in his funeral ovation to his father, “Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan was one of the servants of Allah, favored by Him with the Khilafah, bestowed him and established his (rule)…. Allah has put on our shoulders what was given to him” (7).

Rabah bin Zanba’ al –Judhami said to the people of Madinah when they were reluctant in paying allegiance to Yazid:

“ We are not calling you to Lakhm or Judham or Kalb, but we are calling you to Quraish and to whom Allah has given this affair exclusively i.e. Yazid bin Mu’awiyah. (8)

Baladhuri in ‘Ansab al-Ashraf’ said: When AbdulMalik bin Marwan wanted to go over to Syria, he delivered a sermon to the people in Kufah, and showed them the high status of the ruler, and said to them “ He is Allah ‘s shadow on earth “ He also motivated them on obedience (of the ruler) and on remaining with the community. (9)

Hajjaj bin Yusuf has also said to the people of Iraq, “ The Commander of the Faithful AbdulMalik bin Marwan was placed in authority in his land by Allah, and is pleased with him as an Imam on His servants.” (10) Hajjaj was the first to use the word al-Ma’sum, (infallible) in describing Abdul Malik bin Marwan and that was in his letter, in which he said: For the servant of Allah, AbdulMalik, the Leader of the Faithful and the Khalifah (vicegerent) of the Lord of the worlds, supported with authority, the infallible from error in words or deeds, through the protection of Allah, which is necessary for those who possess His affair.” (11).

Marwan bin Muhammad has said in a congratulatory letter to Walid bin Yazid, in the year 125 A.H: “May Allah bless the Leader of the Faithful for what has come to him of authority on His servants and the inheritance of His land. The leader of the faithful has a special place in the sight of Allah, who strengthens him with the best of Lands, and he did what Allah showed him as right, and performed independently what he has take of it. His rule has been affirmed in the earlier scriptures, by its appointed time. Allah has favored him with it, of all His creatures, after seeing their condition. So he put that responsibility on him with all its hardships and made him in charge of the affairs.”(12).

Historians mention a long letter for Walid bin Yazid on bay'ah (paying allegiance) to his two sons as crown princes. He expatiated in it the Umayyad theory of the Caliphate. It is mentioned therein: “ Allah has appointed the Caliphs to succeed one another on the principles of Prophet hood, when He took the soul of His Prophet (peace be upon him), So the caliphs appeared one after the other, on what Allah has given as inheritance to them of the affairs of his Prophets (peace be upon them), and made them succeed them on that. No one opposes them, except Allah that annihilates him. None leaves their community except Allah destroys him. None despises their authority and questions Allah’s destiny regarding them, except Allah gives them power over him and imposes them on him, and makes him as example and exhortation for others. Likewise Allah does for those who have abandoned the obedience, of which he has been commanded to stick to, and to prefer it to anything else. It is through the Caliphate that Allah protects those on earth, and makes them to depend on it… anyone who receives a portion of it, is a friend of Allah, obedient to him and on His right path. He will receive the good of this world and the next. Any one who deserted and detested and disobeyed Allah regarding it, he will lose his share, disobey his Lord and also lose this world and the next. He will be of those overpowered by misery and wretchedness… Obedience is the foundation of this affair and its summit, reins, basis, preservation and support, after the words of Ikhlas (La ilah illa Al-lah)- ‘There is no deity except Allah’, by which Allah has distinguished between His servants, due to the abandonment of obedience and its loss and the turning away from it, and changing it. Due to this Allah destroyed anyone who went astray and became rebellious, exceeded limits, and left Divine guidance on right cousins and ways of piety, etc. so stick to the obedience of Allah regarding whatever comes over to you, or whatever you achieved and what ever befalls you of events. You should seek Allah’s pleasure through it, for you have seen how Allah gives status to the obedient ones, how He has raised their positions, how clear He made their evidences, prevail and how He obliterated the falsehood of those who opposed and hated them, who wanted to extinguish the light of Allah in their possession”.

He then discussed the system of Crown Prince (Wilayah al-Ahd) and Khilafah through hereditary means saying: “The affair of this covenant is part of the perfection of Islam, and the accomplishment of what Allah has bestowed on His people in terms of great favors. It is also part of what Allah will give of great reward for anyone who did it and uttered it with his tongue, and part of what Allah will cause to have great effects on the Muslims… Praise Allah, your lord, who is kind to you, and the one who has guided you to in this affair of (crowing a prince), which Allah has made a source of peace and tranquility upon which you depend. The leader of the faithful, since his ascension to the throne has been giving utmost importance and concern to this issue, cause of his knowledge of the status of this affair with the Muslims, and what Allah has shown them of the affairs they envy, one towards the other, and of what he gives to them of what He has destined for them, and what He chooses for him and them, and what Allah decrees for him and them on that what his friend who rules (decides) The leader of the faithful found it right to take a covenant from you similar to the covenant you are fulfilling now, on similar terms. He know the place of that affair which Allah has made a source of immunity from error, a success righteousness and a life, the leader of the faithful has made Al-Hakam bin Amir al-Muminin and Uthman bin Amir al-Muminin the Caliph after him. The two are of those whom the Leader of the faithful hopes Allah has created for this purpose and has shaped and perfected them in all virtues. Those whom he will appoint to succeed him due to their good understanding (of affairs), right religions conduct, integrity and profound knowledge of people’s welfare--- so pay allegiance to Al-Hakam bin Amir al-Muminin in the name of Allah, and His blessing and them to his brother after him on total obedience. This is the issue which you sought to delay and you were in a haste to see you praise Allah for making it to pass and destining it for you--- We seek and implore Allah other them whom there is no god… that He blesses, the Leader of the Faithful and you in what he has decreed on his tongue of that affair, and that he makes what comes of it, a means of prosperity and happiness and competition (towards good). That rests with Him. None has power over that except Him.

The basis therefore, of the Umayyads calling on the Muslims to obey their Caliphs in absolute sense is the statement of Allah the Exalted “ Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you”, and interpreting obedience to mean absolute obedience in virtue as well as in vice.

THE REACTION OF THE SHIITES

This is what caused a reaction from the Shiites, who form the main opposition to the Umayyads. They first asserted the right of the household of the Prophet in the Caliphate and government, then some of them pointed to Allah’s appointment of them, and yet another group declared their infallibility. These concepts that crystallized at the beginning of the second century of Hijrah, coupled with the factionalization that was like a hurricane in the Shiite movement, and the internal tussle for leader ship by the different wings of the household of the Prophet. All these led to the evolvement of the idea of Divine Imamate for the household of the Prophet, based on the principles of (Infallibility, Divine text and Divine Appointment), especially according to a section of them.

On top of the list of those advocating for this wre the following:

1. 1. A famous theologian: Abu Ja’far al-Ahwal Muhammad bin Ali Nu'man, nick named 'Mumin al-Taq', who authored a number of books on this topic namely, Kitab al- Imamah, Kitab al-Ma’rifah, and Kitab al-Radd ala Ahl-Mutazilah fi Imamah al-Mafdul.

2. 2. Ali bin Isma'il bin Shu'aib bin Maitham Tammar Abu al-Hassan al-Maithami, about whom Tusi said in ‘Al-Fihrist’ “ he was the first theologian to discuss the doctrine of Imamate and he wrote a book on this, (al-Imamah) he also wrote 'Al-Istihqaq' and 'Al-Kamil', on the same issue.

3. 3. Hisham bin Salim Al-Jawaliqi

4. 4. Qays Al-Masir

5. 5. Hamran bin A’yun

6. 6. Abu Basir, Laith bin Al-Bukhturi al-Muradi al-Asdi

7. 7. Hisham bin al-Hakam al-Kindi d, 279 A.H) who wrote ‘Al-Imamah’, Al-Radd ala Hisham bin Salim al- Jawaliqi, Al-Radd ala Shaitan al-Taq ‘Kitab al-Tadbir fi al-Imamah, Imamah al-Mafdul’, Al-Wasiyyah wa al-Radd ala Munkiriha’ Kitab Ikhtilaf al –Nas fi al-Imamah and 'Al Majalis fi al-Imamah'. Sheikh Tusi said of him in the Fihrist he was of those who started the logical discussions on the Imamate and refined the school through rational means. He was a skilled theologian (scholastic). Allama Hilli said of him in his 'Al-Khulasah'. He was the first person to start discussions on (Imamate text and will) and he refined the school through rational means.

8. 8. Muhammad bin Khalil known as al-Sakkak, companion of Hisham bin al- Hakam was also a theologian. He differed from Hisham in many things, except the principle of the Imamate. He has a number of books; some of them are Kitab al-Marifah, Kitab al-Istita’ah, Kitab al-Imamah, Kitab al-Radd ala man Aba Wujub al-Imamah bi al-Nass. (14) These scholastics have opined that, “Imamate is an obligation from Allah. It is among the members of the Prophet’s household, and it is hereditary in the children of Hussain downwards till the Day of Judgment. It is established by means of a text (nass) or will or miracles from the Unseen. Zayd bin Ali was taken aback with this theory, when he went to Kufah in preparation for his revolt against the Umayyad ruler, Hisham bin Al-Hakam in the year 122 A. H. That was when Mumin al-Taq was invited to join his movement but he rejected that because Zayd was not an Imam chosen by Allah.

Mumin al –Taq said “Zayd bin Ali sent to me while in hiding. So I went to him, and he said to me: “O father of Ja’far, what do you say if a visitor came to you…. Will you go out with him? He said, I said to him, “ If he were your father or your brother, I will go out with him” He said, “He them said to me”, I want to go and fight those people, come out with me.’ He said, I said No I will not do that, may I be your ransom. He said, ‘ He then said to me, “Do you prefer your soul over nine? He said ‘ I said to him “ It is only one soul, If Allah has a sign and evidence (Imam) on earth, then the one who abandoned you is saved, and anyone who go out with you (in revolt) will be doomed. If Allah has no sign (Imam), then the one who abandoned you and the one who supported you, are the same”. He then who said to me” O Father of Ja’far, I used to sit with my father on a dining arrangement, he used to give me a fat morsel, and he made a hot morsel cold for me as a sign of his compassion on me. But he did show compassion on me from the fire of hell, as he taught you religion, but he did not teach me. Then I said to him, “ May I be your ransom, of his compassion on you from the heat of hell fire, he did not tell you. He feared that you will not accept it and you will go to hell-fire, and he told me, if you accept you are saved and if I am not accepted he doesn’t mind. If I will be put in the hell-fire, just as Ya'qub, concealed the dream (of Yusuf) from his children.

Kashi reported in his “Rijal” a narration similar to the above but he said, “The dialogue took place before Imam Sadiq and that Zayd bin Ali first asked Mumin al-Taq a question: O Muhammad, it has reached me that you claim that among the family of Muhammad (peace be upon him) there is an Imam, whose obedience is an obligation? He replied with the same response. He then said to him, “ Your father did not want to tell you, lest you disbelieve, and there will be no intercession for you.”

Perhaps the first and the most powerful philosophical dialogues and debates that evolved on the necessity of the infallibility of the Imam, were the ones conducted by Hisham bin al-Hakam, which were reported by Saduq and Mufid, and they are as follows:

Mufid says in al-Irshad: Hisham bin Al-Hakam conducted a debate with a man from Syria, in the presence of Imam Sadiq on a mountains edge, by the side of the Haram. The Syrian man said to Hisham:

“O young man ask me on the Imamate of this man” i.e. Abu Abdullah – Hisham became angry to the extent of trembling, then he said to him:

“ Tell me…. Is your Lord more concerned with His creation than themselves or not?

The Syrian replied, “ My Lord is more concern His creation. “ Hisham then said “ What has he done for them in their religion? The man replied. “He commanded them (to obey Him) and established evidences on what He has commanded and He removed by that their excuses”.

Hisham then said to him, “ What is that evidence that he established for them? The Syrian said:

“He is the Messenger of Allah. Then Hisham said, “ Then after the Messenger of Allah who? “ He answered, “The Book of Allah and the Sunnah (tradition of the Prophet of Allah (peace be upon him).” Hisham then said, “ Will the Book and Sunnah help us today, if we differ on some issues, that our differences will be terminated, and we will agree among ourselves?

The Syrian said, “Yes Then Hisham said to him, “ Why do we differ we and you and you came to us from Syria, opposing us, and you claim that personal opinion is the way of establishing religious issues, and you admit that opinion will not lead to one statement being accepted by opposing parties.”

The Syrian became silent, like the one thinking. Then Abu Abdullah said to him, “ Why are you not speaking? He replied, “If I said we did not differ, I am being haughty, and if I said, the Book and the Sunnah will raise our differences, I have lost, because the two can be interpreted differently. But I have also to ask him.”

Abu Abdullah said, “ Ask him, you will find him up to the task.”

The Syrian then said to Hisham: “Who is more concerned with the creation, their Lord or themselves?

Hisham replied: Their Lord is more concerned. “Then the Syrian said, “ Has he established for them, who will settle their differences and clear their misunderstandings, and explain to them what is right and what is wrong? He replied, ‘yes’, then the Syrian said: “Who is that?

Hisham then replied: “ At the inception of the shari'ah, it was the Messenger of Allah, and after the Prophet, it is someone else. The Syrian said, “ Who is that, other than the prophet who will stand in his place with a similar evidence?”

Hisham said: “In this our time or before it?” He replied, “ No in this our time.”

He said: “This man sitting, (i.e. Abu Abdullah) to whom people travel (to see him). And he tells us of the news from Heavens, as a heritage from forefathers.”

The Syrian said; “ How can I know that?” Hisham replied: “Ask him what you want”. The Syrian then said, “I excuse myself, so ask me”. Abu Abdullah then said to him: “ I will tell you of your journey and travail – You set out on so-so day--- and your route was so and so, and so and so passed by you. The Syrian accepted whatever was described for him of his affairs saying. “By Allah you have spoken the truth.” (16)

There is another narration mentioned by Saduq in a long debate that took place in a later date between Hisham, Dirar and Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi in the courtroom of the Abbasid vizier Yahya bin Khalid al –Barmaki.

Dirar said to Hisham, “ How is Imamate established and confirmed? Hisham replied: “ As Allah established Prophethood.”

Hisham then said: “So he is a Prophet? Then said: “ No, because Prophethood is established by the Beings in heavens, and Imamate is established by the people of the earth. So the ratification of Prophethood is by the angels, and the ratification of the Imam is by the Prophet (peace be upon him). The two are established by the will of Allah”.

Dirar then said: What evidence do you have for that?

His ham replied: The necessity of this issue is…because there can be only three ways in it. Either that Allah has waived (responsibility) (taklif) from the creations after the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), that he no more commands them or prohibits them from doing anything, and they have become similar to wild beast and other animals, which are not responsible. Or that people, after the Prophet (peace be upon him) have acquired knowledge similar to that of the Prophet, to the extent that one is not in need of the other, so that they will all be self-sufficient, and attain the truth without any differences among them.

Only the third option remains, which is that they are in need of others, because there must be knowledge to be established by the Messenger for them, in such a way that, he neither forgets, nor errs, nor deviates. He will be infallible and protected from sins, free of errors, one who all need, but who needs none.

He said: “What is the evidence for that?

Hisham answered “Eight evidences four are features of his lineage and four are his personal features. As for the four features from his lineage (descent), he will be from a known race and a well-known tribe and a well –known household, and that the Prophet pointed to him. There has never been a race in this creation as famous as the Arabs, of whom was the Prophet (peace be upon him). If it was permissible that the evidence from Allah (Imam) for His creation can be from any other race of the non-Arabs, and it would have been that what Allah wanted to be a source of good will is a source of corruption. This will not be compatible with the wisdom and justice of Allah, that He imposes on mankind an obligatory duty that does not exist. As this is not permissible, so it is not permissible that (the Imam) will be from other than this race, due to his relation with the prophet. It is also not permissible that he will be of this race, if he will not be from this tribe, due to its close relation to the Prophet (peace be upon him), which is Quraish. As it is not permissible that he will be from this race, except that he is from this tribe, in similar ways, it will not be permissible that he (the Imam) will be from this tribe, except that he is from this household, for its close relation with the Prophet (peace be upon him). And as the members of this household, are many, and have quarreled on the issue of Imamate, due to its lofty position, with each one of them claiming it for himself, so it is not permissible except that the Prophet points to him in person, and by his name and his descent, so that all others will be excluded from claiming it.

As for the four personal features of (the Imam), they are that, he will be the most knowledgeable person as regards Allah’s injunctions and precepts, so that nothing small or big will be obscured to him; and that he should be free from all sins (infallible); and he should be the bravest of men, and the most generous of them.

Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi then said: “ Why do you say that he (the Imam) will be the most knowledgeable of all men?”

Hisham said: “That is because if he is not conversant with all the injunctions, precepts and laws of Allah, we cannot be secured that he will not change the injunctions of Allah, so that anyone who commits an offence will not be punished accordingly, if it involves cutting up his hand, he will not execute it: so that he does not establish the limits of Allah on what He has commanded, being in the ling run, a source of corruption instead of reform as Allah wishes.

Then he said, “ How do you say that he is free from sins?”

He replied: “This is because if he were not free from sins, he will fall into error, so we cannot be secured that he will conceal what he has done, or conceal his friend or relation: and Allah will not set this person as his evidence on His creation.”

He then further asked:” How do you say that he (the Imam) is the bravest of people?” Hisham replied: “ This is because that group of Muslims who will resort to him in wars, Allah says “ And whoever turns his back to them on such a day—unless it is a stratagem of war, or to retreat to a troop of his own he indeed has drawn upon himself wrath from Allah…. So if he were not brave, he will draw the wrath of Allah on himself. It is not permissible that the one who draws Allah’s wrath will be Allah’s evidence upon his creation.”

Abdullah further asked him.” How do you say that he is the most generous of people? He replied: “ Because he is the keeper of Muslims treasures. For if he were not generous, his soul will crave for their width and he will take it, and that will be breach of trust: and it is not permissible that Allah will present a cheat as His evidence on His creation.(17)

Sheikh Saduq reported in his ‘Amali, a speech of Hisham bin al-Hakam on the philosophy of infallibility (Ismah), from Muhammad bin Abi Umair who said: “I have never heard nor ever benefited from Hisham bin Hakam during my long companionship of him, better than this speech on the features of Imam’s infallibility. One day I asked him about the Imam. Is he infallible?” He replied “yes.” Then I said to him. “ What is the nature of infallibility in him and by what can it be known? He replied:

“ All sins have only (four) causes there is no more. It is either due to greed or envy or anger or desire. These are not attributable to him. It is not permissible that he will be covetous of this world, as it is under his control, as he is the keeper of the treasures of Muslims, then why should he have greed for anything? It is also not permissible that he will be envious of one above him, and there is none above him, then how can he be envious of one below him? It is also not permissible that he will be angry on anything of this world, except if it is for the sake of Allah, the Exalted. Allah has made it incumbent upon him to establish the limits of Allah (the penalties), and the blame of blamers will not deter him from that, nor pity will make him shy away from the punishment prescribed by Allah, until he establishes those punishments. It is not permissible for him to follow desires and prefer this world to the hereafter, because Allah has made him to love the hereafter as he has made him to love this world. Have you ever seen anyone who left what is better, for a something good, or a soft and smooth garment for a coarse one or an ever-testing bliss for a transient one? (18)

DIVINE IMAMATE

The theory of Imamate says: Imamate is a divine affair and the appointment of a new Imam is made through the intervention of Allah, and there is no room for the wish of the former Imam in that. Amr bin Ash’ath said that he heard Imam Sadiq saying: “It seems that you think this affair is in the hands of one of us, He (Allah) places it where He wishes! No by Allah, it is a covenant from the Messenger of Allah which names a man then another, till it reaches its owner.” (19)

Isma'il bin Ammar said that he once asked Abu al-Hassan, the first (Kadhim) about the Imamate: “ Is it an obligation from Allah that the Imam must give a will and a covenant (for the one to come after him) before he leaves this world?” He replied “Yes” Then he said, Is it an obligation from Allah? “ He answered: “Yes”. (20)

Yahya bin Malik said that he asked Imam Rida on the statement of Allah, the Exalted: “ Verily! Allah commands that you should render back the trusts to those to whom they are due”.

He replied: The Imam return it to the Imam.” Then he said: “O Yahya by Allah it is not from him (the Imam), but it is an affair from Allah”. (21)

These are the most important abstracts in theology that has reached us from the first Imamate generation, which initiated theological discourse on Imamate, infallibility, text and will, as mentioned by the scholars who studied Twelver-Imam Shiites personalities, like, al-Kashi, Najashi, Saduq, Mufid, Tusi and Hilli. Other later theologians like al-Fadl bin Shadhan bin Khalil al-Azdi al-Nisapuri (who died in the middle of the third century of Hijrah). He wrote a number of works namely, 'Masa'il fi al-Imamah', ‘Kitab al-Imamah al-Kabir’ 'Al-Khisal fi al-Imamah', 'Fadl al-Muminin’ and 'Kitab al-Qa'im', and Al- Rawandi, the author of ‘Al-Imamah’ and Thubait bin Muhammad Abu Muhammad Askari, the companion of Abu Isa Al-Warraq, he was al-Hilli described him, ‘an intelligent theologian, and that the book attributed to Abu Isa al-Warraq was written by him,’ Fadl bin Abd Rahman, Abu Sahl Ismail bin Ali Nukhbati (d. 290 A.H) Abu Ja’far Abdul Rahman bin Qubbah (he died in the middle of the 4^th century of Hijrah), the writer of ‘Al-Insaf wa al-Intisaf fi Al-Imamah’, Sharif Murtada (d. 441 A.H), the writer of ‘Kitab al-Shafi fi al Imamah’ and other works.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF INFALLIBILITY

The philosophy of infallibility (of the Imam) is based on the concept of absolute obedience of those in authority, and its not being relative, like refuting what the Imam said or refusing to obey him in disobedience (of Allah), and in vices if he commands that; or correcting him when his disobedience (fisq) for Allah is apparent; and when he strayed from the path (of guidance). This was the same concept that the Umayyad rulers were busy spreading, as they were demanding the Muslims to obey them in absolute terms, in what is good or evil. And this is what led the Shiite philosophers and theologians to in-consistency as regards the necessity of obeying Allah, who commands the believers to obey those in authority in the verse: “ O you who believe, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you…” and the necessity of absolute obedience of the rulers, even if that involves vices and the impermissible.

Therefore, these Imamate theologians assert the necessity of the Imam any Imam being made infallible by Allah, so that he will not command what constitute disobedience to Allah, and so as not to make Muslims contradict themselves in obeying him in what involves the disobedience of Allah, or disobeying the Imam in that case despite Allah’s command to obey him.

Sheikh Tusi said in ‘Talkhis al-Shafi’: “What indicates the necessity of the Imam being infallible is what has been established of his being an example to be emulated. Don’t you see that he has been called Imam due to that? Imam is one to be emulated, due to this, it was said that the Imam in prayer must be emulated and followed… There is also a consensus among the Muslims that the Imam is to be followed in all aspects of the Shari’ah, even if they differ in the mode of appointing him. If it is established that he is to be followed in all aspects of Shari'ah, it is necessary that he is infallible (ma’sum). Because if he is not infallible, we cannot be secured in some of his actions, in which he might command us to kill some people; or to take the wealth of some, and the like, which are evil. It is incumbent on us to agree with him, by emulating him. It is not permissible that the Wise will make it compulsory on us emulating what is evil. If that is not permissible on Him to do that, that proves that the One whose obedience he has imposed is free from contracting evil, no one is like that except the infallible.”

Sheikh Tusi rejected the concept of relative obedience saying. “ If it said: Why do you deny that the emulation of the Imam is compulsory in what we know to be good, and as for that we know to be evil, or we doubt its true position, in that case his emulation is not incumbent! It will be said to him: This will deny the meaning of emulation completely, and will turn it from its purpose…. And it will necessarily follow that the Imam himself is following his subjects in this regard. The contradiction this can lead to is evident.

Sheikh Mufid said in ‘Al-Nukat al-I’ tiqadiyyah’: “The evidence for the necessity of the Imam being infallible is: if it is permissible for him to commit sins, and correcting him becomes compulsory he loses his status in the hearts, and he will not be emulated. The purpose of appointing him is so that he will be emulated and followed, so the purpose will be defeated. And if it is not compulsory to correct him, the necessity of prohibiting vice or evil is denied. This is null and void. He is the preserver of the law, if he were not infallible, his addition to or deletion (of the law) cannot be guaranteed.”(23)

Imamate Shiites believe that the Imams are like Prophets (peace be upon them) on the necessity of their being infallibles, as regards all vices and all kinds of disobedience from childhood to old age to death, intentionally or unintentionally, because they are the preservers of the law and those establishing it, similar to the position of a Prophet. Because the need for Imam, is such that the oppressed can get his right from the oppressor, and also for the annihilation of corruption and putting an end to strife (fitnah) .The Imam is compassionate, he prevents the powerful from transgressing, and encourages people to obey the commandments of Allah, and abstain from His prohibitions. He establishes the limits of Allah, and his obligations. He seizes the disobedient ones and gives corrective punishment to those who deserve it. If disobedience is possible in his case, and he committed such an act, all these benefits will be denied, and there will be a need for another Imam to infinity.” (24)

THE NECESSITY OF A DIVINE SCHOLAR WHO INTERPRETS THE QURAN

In addition to the issue of obedience and the necessity of the leader being infallible, some theologians look at the philosophy of infallibility from another angle, i.e. the necessity of the need for an interpreter of the Great Quran under the pretext of the inability of the Muslims in dealing with the Quran and benefiting from it directly. Kulayni reported in Al-Kafi the oldest tradition in this philosophy from Mansur bin Hazim who said: “ I said to the people “ Do you know that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was Allah’s evidence to His creation? They said: “ yes.” I said after that” After the demise of the messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), who was the evidence on Allah’s creation? They answered “ The Quran”. I looked to the Quran and observed that the Murji'ite, the Qadarite and the infidel (Zindiq) all present it as their evidence, in a way that they overcome their opponents, and then I understand that the Quran can never be evidence without a custodian. Whatever he says on anything it is the truth. I then said to them: “ Who is the custodian of the Quran? They replied: “ Ibn Mas’ud is knowledgeable, so also Umar and Hudhayfah". I said: “All of it? “ They said “ No I have never found anyone said to know its entirety except Ali. Bear witness that Ali was the custodian of the Quran. (25).

After that other philosophers and theologians came and added to that and extended the Hadith in this sphere. Sayyid Murtada said in ‘Al-Shafi’: “The Imam must be knowledgeable in all the injunctions of Allah without exception, otherwise, it necessitates that he will be made custodian of what he has no means of, and that will mean imposing on him what he cannot bear. That, which confirms the necessity of the Imam being knowledgeable in the entire injunctions, is what has been reported that, the Imam is the leader in all aspects of religion, and the executor of all judgments, big or small delicate or ambiguous. It is not possible that for him not be knowledgeable in all aspects of religion and injunctions.” (26)

Sheikh Tusi said: It has been established that not all that was needed in the Shari’ah, is based on absolute evidence from consensus or Ijma' or the like. Not all the evidences in many cases can be argued in both ways … If that has been confirmed and Shari'ah and its application has been imposed on us, then there must be an authority through whom we can reach the truth, in any issue wherein there are conflicting opinions. That is the Imam we are advocating.” (27)

He also said: “It is established that the Imam is the leader in all aspects of religion, and the one executing all judgments, all rulings, delicate or manifest or obscured. It is not possible that he will not know the entire injunctions.” That is his attribute, because what is established in the sight of those who possess intellect is the evilness of giving the affair to one who does not know it, even if those who appointed him have a way of possessing the like of his knowledge of what he rules. There is no effect to the possibility of his learning and his having access to the way of knowledge. That is because, even though that is possible, his leadership cannot be right, if he lacks knowledge of what has been given over to him.” (28)

Sheikh Tusi puts as a necessary condition for the Imam prior knowledge of everything, as he rejected dependence on Ijtihad as regards what will happen in the future or when there will be need for it. He said: “ If it were said, why shouldn’t the Imam be not knowing the entire injunctions related to his rule, only to resort to using juristic analogy (Ijtihad) whenever he needed to pass a judgment, or he resorts to narrations from singular reporters, or even he asks scholars, just as the ordinary person refers to them, or that he withdraws from what he has no knowledge of till it becomes apparent and clear to him through one of the means of acquiring knowledge. All this constitutes an accepted way of worshiping Allah.”

It will be replied: “This is the statement of one who thinks that we only show as evil the leadership of the Imam who has no complete knowledge of all injunctions, because he has no other means of knowledge. We have explained that the existence of such means is like its non-existence if the knowledge attributed to Allah is not available. Definitely this kind of leadership is evil due to the lack of knowledge. There is no need for us to discuss what they consider means of acquiring knowledge which the Imam can resort to. This is because, even if it is ascertained that all of them are means to knowledge and learning, the injunction will not affect what we have certified. In real fact, most of what the questioner mentioned, will not lead to true knowledge in our view? As for Qiyas (analogical deduction), narrations from singular reporters and Ijtihad, as explained earlier, they do not constitute sources of knowledge in our view, and so cannot be a means of worshipping Allah. As for the resorting of the ordinary person to the scholar, to us it is not possible for him to emulate anyone else, but it is necessary for him to seek for knowledge by the means that lead to true knowledge. If that is permissible his case will not be like the Imam. This is because that was permissible only due to his not being a ruler over him (or one having authority over him). So it is necessary that he follow the scholar and act upon that. We only show the evil of presenting the one without knowledge for his being the authority in all affairs. We will never permit that because of his being ignorant of some of (the affairs). As we do not in accordance with our principles permit that the rulers resort to the scholars, then they judge based on that, as is allowed by our opponents, due to the reason mentioned above.” (29)

THE MOST SUITABLE AND THE SUITABLE

Besides infallibility and divine knowledge seen by Imamate thought as necessary qualities in the Imam to be emulated, there are other qualities for the Imam also. That is he must be the best of the Muslims, as the Imamate of the suitable is not permitted in the presence of the most suitable. He must also be the bravest of men and the most generous. Sheikh Tusi says: “The Imam must be better than all his subjects, i.e. he must excel in rewards from Allah, and also be better than them all in all what he leads them.” (30)

He also said: “It is necessary that the Imam should be braver than all his followers, and all what follows of that quality that affirms his being their leader, in what pertains to fighting the enemies, which involves bravery. He must be the most powerful of them in that. This is because, the head is usually better than the followers whom he leads, as we have shown of the evil of preferring the better over the best, in what he is better than him. On his being the most authoritative and powerful, this comes from the law itself, because the name of Imam is given to only that one that above whom there is no leader or head. On his being the most understanding and rational, this is because, he has to have the best of opinions in any issue, due to being the most knowledgeable in policy and administration.” (31)

Sayyid Murtada says “ That which makes it necessary for the Imam to be the best in pious acts and rewards, as well as in knowledge an all other kinds of virtues related to religion, above all his subjects, i.e. in the virtues wherein he leads them, is what we and all rational people know of the evil of making the better in a particular virtue the leader and head of the best in that. The Imam is our leader in all aspects of religion, its knowledge and injunctions, then it is necessary that he will be better than us in all that.” (32)

FROM INFALLIBILITY… TO (DIVINE) TEXT

After affirming the necessity of describing the Imam, any Imam, in terms of infallibility, and of being the best in knowledge, bravery and generosity, and the non-permissibility of the Imamate of the fallible and the ignorant or the better (in the presence of the best), and since there is no way of knowing this except through divine guidance, the Imamate thought rested on the principle of abandoning ‘ Shura’ as a means of choosing an Imam. This principle was substituted with the idea of the (divine) text or the will or miracles from the unseen, which distinguish the Imam chosen by Allah from all other humans.

Sheikh Mufid says: “The Imam must be knowledgeable in all injunctions needed by the Ummah, and the most religious of all his followers. If these fundamentals are available, it is incumbent on him to declare himself to his subjects through a text (decree), and an extraordinary and miraculous knowledge. This is because there is no way of knowing anyone who possesses these qualities except through a text from the truthful, which he himself received from Allah or through a miracle”. (33)

Sayyid Murtada also says: “ If it has been established that the Imam must be knowledgeable in all the injunctions, it becomes impossible to elect him, but rather there must be a (divine) text on (his being) the Imam. This is because those who will elect him are not knowledgeable in all the injunctions, then how is it possible to choose the one with this quality? “He also says: “ If it has been established that the Imam is our leader in all (aspects of) religion, and its knowledge and injunctions, It becomes necessary that he will be better than all of us in all that. And in his being the most pious and religious, comes the necessity of a clear text on him, as this cannot be reached through (mere) election.” (34)

He also says: “Know that our belief on the necessity of the (divine) text and its indispensable nature as regards the Imamate, has already been explained above, and that is enough to show that election is invalid. This is because anything that has been established by the text itself that vitiates or nullifies election. Know that that which we depend on, on the invalidity of the election of the Imam, is the exposition of his qualities, which the electorate have no evidence on, and it is not possible to know that through rational thinking or ‘Ijtihad’ and these are limited to All-knowing Allah, like infallibility, superiority in righteous acts and rewards, and knowledge above all the Ummah. There is no ambiguity that these qualities cannot be grasped through elections, except by means of a (divine) text. We did explain also that it is not possible to assert the validity of election, when we consider the qualities…We also said: that is an invalid instruction, on the basis that one is commanded to do something wherein he has nothing to guide him to it, and no authority to distinguish the compulsory act from what is not.”(35)

REFERENCES

1- 1- Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 6, P. 170, Al- Imamah wa al – Siyasah, vol. 1, p. 151

2- 2- Hussain Atwan: Al-Shura Fi al-Asr al-Umawi P. 30 see also Ansab al –Ashraf, Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah fi al Tarikh, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al – Muluk, Al –Iqd al-Farid, Al- Kamil fi al-Tarikh, and Tarikh al- Khulafa of Al-Suyuti.

3- 3- Al- Bidayah wa al-Nihayah, vol. 8, P. 131

4- 4- Ansab al-Ashraf, vol. 4, P. 117

5- 5- Jahiz: Al-Bayan was al- Tabyin, Vol. 2, P. 94, Tarikh al- Rusul wa al- Muluk, vol. 5, Al-Iqd al-Farid vol. 4, P. 112, Al-Kamil, Vol. 3 p. 449, and Ibn Abi al-Hadid’s commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah, Vol. 16, P. 202.

6- 6- Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, vol.1, P .300

7- 7- ibid, vol. 1,p. 204

8- 8- Al-Bayan wa al-Tabyin, Vol. 1,P. 300

9- 9- Baladhuri: Ansab al- Ashraf, Vol. 5, P. 354

10- 10- Ibn Qutaybah, Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Vol. 2 P. 32

11- 11- Al – Iqd al-Farid, Vol, 5, P. 25

12- 12- Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, Vol. 7, P. 216

13- 13- ibid, vol. 7, P. 221

14- 14- Hilli: Al- Khulasah, P. 93 and p. 178, Mufid; Al-Irshad, P. 280, see also Rijal al – Kashi, Al- Najashi and Al- Fihrist of Tusi, ‘Ilal al- Shara’i of Saduq, P. 203

15- 15- Kulayni: Al- Kafi, Vol. 1, P. 174, Tabrisi: Al- Ihtijaj, Vol. 2, P. 141

16- 16- Mufid: Al- Irshad. PP 278 279

17- 17- Saduq: Ikmal al- Din, P. 362- 368, Al- Majlisi: Bihar alp al-Anwar, vol. 11, P. 291

18- 18- Saduq: Ikmal Amali, P. 363-363, Ilal al-Shara’ I P 204

19- 19- Ali bin Babawaih: Al-Imamah wa al- Tabsirah min al- Hayrah, P. 165

20- 20- ibid.

21- 21- ibid, P. 166

22- 22- Tusi: Talkhis al- Shafi, vol. 1, P. 192

23- 23- Mufid: Al- Nukat al- Itiqadiyyah, P. 48

24- 24- Hilli: Nahj al- Haq wa Kashf al- Sidq, P. 164 Hilli: Minhaj al-Karamah fi Ithbat al- Imamah, p. 51 (old edition), Muhammad Sadiq Sadr: Al-Shiah Al- Imamiyyah, P. 126

25- 25- Kulayni Al-Kafi, Al- Hujjah, P. 169

26- 26- ibid, PP. 14-15

27- 27- Tusi: Talkhis al-Shafi, vol. 1 P. 108

28- 28- ibid. Vol. 1, p. 236

29- 29- ibid, vol. 1, p. 240

30- 30- ibid. Vol. 1, p199-211

31- 31- ibid. Vol. 1, p. 264

32- 32- Murtada: al-Shafi, vol 2, p. 42

33- 33- Mufid: Al- Thaqalan al-Kitab wa al-Itrah /numerous treatises, P. 179.

34- 34- Murtada, op. cit. vol. 2, P. 17 and P. 42

35- 35- ibid, Vol. 4 P. 6.